The National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) is an annual U.S. congressional statute that authorizes funding levels and policy provisions for the U.S. Department of Defense.
January 01, 2026
high
temporal
Describes the recurring legislative vehicle used by Congress to set defense funding and policy.
Enhanced Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) subsidies that were expanded during the COVID-19 pandemic are scheduled to expire at the end of 2025 unless Congress takes legislative action.
December 31, 2025
high
temporal
Refers to pandemic-era increases in subsidies under the Affordable Care Act and their scheduled expiration absent congressional extension.
Enhanced Affordable Care Act (ACA) premium subsidies are scheduled to expire at the end of 2025 unless Congress enacts legislation to extend them.
December 31, 2025
high
temporal
Temporary increases to ACA subsidies require congressional action to continue beyond their scheduled expiration.
Expanded Affordable Care Act (ACA) premium subsidies are scheduled to expire in December 2025 unless Congress acts to extend them.
December 31, 2025
high
temporal
Policy timeline for temporary ACA subsidy expansions that affect health insurance premiums.
Enhancements to Affordable Care Act (ACA) subsidies implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic were scheduled to expire in 2025 unless Congress acted to extend them.
December 31, 2025
high
temporal
Pandemic-era increases to ACA financial assistance were temporary and subject to legislative extension
Enhanced Affordable Care Act (ACA) premium subsidies that were enacted during the COVID-19 pandemic are scheduled to expire on 2025-12-31 unless Congress acts to extend them.
December 31, 2025
high
temporal
These pandemic-era subsidy increases affect health insurance premium assistance under the ACA and require congressional action to continue beyond 2025.
A two-thirds majority vote in the U.S. House of Representatives is required to expel a member of Congress.
November 20, 2025
high
temporal
Threshold for the House to remove a member from office
A 2025 NPR/PBS News/Marist poll found that respondents reported little to no confidence in major U.S. institutions including Congress, the media, political parties, the Supreme Court, and the presidency.
November 19, 2025
high
statistical
Public confidence levels in key national institutions as measured by a national poll.
Under U.S. federal law and practice, the President can sign a bill into law, veto a bill, or allow a bill to become law without a signature if the President does not sign or veto it within 10 days (excluding Sundays); Congress can override a presidential veto by a two-thirds majority vote in both the House of Representatives and the Senate.
November 19, 2025
high
constitutional
The U.S. Constitution and federal statutes set the timeline for presidential action on legislation and the mechanism for congressional veto overrides.
Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure generally protect the secrecy of grand jury proceedings, and Congress can enact statutes that explicitly authorize disclosure of grand jury materials and thereby supersede court-imposed secrecy or prior court rulings.
November 19, 2025
high
legal
General legal principle about grand jury secrecy and the effect of subsequent statutes.
Congress can enact legislation that compels the U.S. Department of Justice to release its files on a specified subject within a statutory deadline, such as requiring release within 30 days.
November 18, 2025
high
procedural
Legislative authority to require executive-branch disclosure through statute.
Congressional oversight committees have the authority to issue subpoenas to obtain documents from private estates or third parties as part of investigations.
November 12, 2025
high
procedural
Describes a general investigative power used by congressional committees.
A recurring constitutional and legal debate holds that the power to levy taxes resides with Congress rather than the president, while an opposing legal position is that tariffs imposed by the executive can be characterized as regulatory measures whose revenue-raising effect is incidental.
November 11, 2025
high
temporal
Legal frameworks and arguments used in challenges to executive-imposed tariffs.
Enhanced health insurance tax credits enacted during the Biden administration can expire unless Congress acts to extend them, and expiration of those credits can lead to significantly higher premiums for many consumers who purchase coverage on Affordable Care Act (ACA) insurance exchanges.
November 10, 2025
high
policy
Tax-credit policy affects affordability of ACA marketplace plans when credits are not renewed.
The Department of Agriculture and the Department of Veterans Affairs are federal agencies funded through annual federal appropriations for the fiscal year.
November 10, 2025
high
temporal
Federal departments are funded through congressional appropriations that cover fiscal-year operations.
Congress can pass legislation requiring that federal employees who were fired or furloughed during a government shutdown be rehired and receive back pay.
November 10, 2025
high
temporal
Legislative action can restore employment and pay for federal workers affected by a shutdown.
Congressional leaders can schedule floor votes to consider extending or modifying Affordable Care Act (ACA) subsidies.
November 10, 2025
high
temporal
Leaders control the floor schedule and can bring policy items such as ACA subsidy changes up for a vote.
A continuing resolution is a temporary stopgap funding measure that Congress can pass to keep federal agencies operating when annual appropriations bills have not been enacted.
November 10, 2025
high
temporal
Continuing resolutions (CRs) provide short-term funding to avoid or end government shutdowns until regular appropriations are passed.
Congress' annual appropriations process is commonly structured as 12 individual appropriations bills that together fund the federal government.
November 10, 2025
high
structural
Overview of how federal discretionary funding is typically organized in U.S. budgeting practice.
A legislative 'minibus' is a vehicle that combines multiple individual appropriations bills into a single package for congressional consideration.
November 10, 2025
high
definition
Terminology used in U.S. congressional appropriations and budgeting processes.
If enhanced Affordable Care Act (ACA) marketplace subsidies lapse, average premiums for ACA marketplace enrollees are projected to more than double in the following year.
November 09, 2025
high
statistical
Projected premium change for ACA marketplace enrollees contingent on expiration of enhanced subsidies.
The Affordable Care Act includes tax credits (premium subsidies) for health insurance that Congress can extend or modify through legislation.
November 09, 2025
high
policy
Describes the ACA's premium tax credits and that their continuation depends on congressional action.
Government shutdowns can result in federal employees being furloughed or experiencing delays in receiving pay unless Congress enacts legislation or other measures to provide pay during the shutdown.
November 08, 2025
high
temporal
Describes the typical personnel and pay consequences of federal government funding gaps.
Congress can pass a continuing resolution (CR) to temporarily fund federal government operations and thereby avert or end a government shutdown.
November 08, 2025
high
policy
Continuing resolutions are a recurring legislative tool used to provide short-term funding when regular appropriations are not enacted.
The Affordable Care Act includes premium tax credits (often called subsidies) that reduce health insurance costs for eligible individuals.
November 08, 2025
high
policy
Mechanism within the ACA to make premiums more affordable.
Congress can enact separate legislation or offer amendments during a funding lapse to provide pay for furloughed federal employees and military personnel.
November 07, 2025
high
temporal
Describes a legislative option available to address federal employee and military pay during shutdowns.
When lawmakers or congressional members do not have subpoena power, letters requesting information function as voluntary requests and recipients are not legally obligated to comply with those requests.
November 07, 2025
high
temporal
Describes the legal effect of oversight letters issued without subpoena authority.
As of 2025-11-05, there have been 20 federal "funding gaps" in the United States since Congress introduced the modern budget process in 1976, according to the Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget.
November 05, 2025
high
historical
Count of funding gaps since establishment of the modern budget process.
A continuing resolution (CR) is a legislative mechanism Congress uses to extend federal government funding temporarily when regular appropriations bills have not been enacted.
November 05, 2025
high
procedural
Describes the purpose and use of a continuing resolution in U.S. federal budgeting.
U.S. statutes including Section 232 (national security trade measures) and Section 301 (authority to respond to unfair trade practices) are examples of laws where Congress has expressly authorized the President to impose tariffs.
November 05, 2025
high
legal
Identifies statutory mechanisms by which Congress has delegated tariff-imposing authority to the executive branch.
The U.S. Constitution's Article I vests Congress with the power to levy tariffs by authorizing it 'to lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises'.
November 04, 2025
high
legal
Constitutional allocation of taxing and tariff authority between branches of government.
Congress has enacted statutes that grant the President limited authority to set tariffs under certain circumstances.
November 04, 2025
high
legal
Statutory delegation of some tariff-setting powers from the legislative branch to the executive branch.
Bipartisan congressional negotiations sometimes produce agreements that include only a promise to hold a vote on extending policy provisions such as ACA subsidies, rather than embedding written extensions in enacted legislation.
November 04, 2025
high
legislative_process
General description of a negotiation outcome where a future vote is promised instead of immediate statutory language.
Abigail Spanberger served in the Central Intelligence Agency before running for Congress in 2018.
November 04, 2025
high
temporal
Biographical detail linking prior professional service to a subsequent congressional campaign.
During a U.S. federal government shutdown, many federal employees may be furloughed or required to work without immediate pay, which can cause them to miss paychecks.
November 03, 2025
high
procedural
Typical effects of a federal government shutdown on federal personnel and pay
The major questions doctrine is a U.S. Supreme Court legal principle that requires Congress to provide clear authorization for executive actions that have major economic or political significance.
November 03, 2025
high
temporal
Judicial standard used to assess whether Congress clearly authorized actions of substantial economic or political consequence.
A government shutdown can occur when lawmakers fail to reach and pass a funding agreement or continuing resolution before the statutory or appropriations deadline.
October 30, 2025
high
temporal
Describes the general procedural cause of government shutdowns in the U.S. appropriations process.
U.S. federal law sets conditions under which the military, including the National Guard, may be used domestically; one statutory condition is that civil authorities are unable to enforce the law with regular forces.
October 29, 2025
high
temporal
Describes a legal criterion for domestic deployment of military forces.
U.S. federal law also authorizes domestic use of the military, including the National Guard, when there is a rebellion or a recognized danger of rebellion.
October 29, 2025
high
temporal
Describes another statutory basis for domestic military deployment.
U.S. federal law enacted by Congress establishes legal conditions for deploying the military domestically, including when civil authorities are unable to enforce the law and when there is a rebellion or danger of rebellion.
October 29, 2025
high
legal
Describes statutory thresholds that govern domestic use of military forces in the United States.
A continuing resolution (CR) is a temporary federal funding measure that lawmakers can extend to provide additional time to complete appropriations (spending) bills and avoid passing a consolidated year-end omnibus spending bill.
October 28, 2025
high
process
Describes a durable legislative mechanism used when regular appropriations bills are not enacted on schedule.
The Register of Copyrights serves as the head (Register and Director) of the U.S. Copyright Office and has a role advising Congress on copyright issues.
October 27, 2025
high
functional
Describes the official duties and advisory relationship of the Register of Copyrights regarding copyright policy and Congress.
Federal government lawyers have asserted that Congress has statutory authority to control the operation of the District of Columbia National Guard, including directing federally controlled Guard units in Washington, D.C.
October 24, 2025
medium
legal-claim
This summarizes the federal government's legal position as reported in litigation over National Guard deployments in Washington, D.C.
In 2025, some U.S. officials publicly compared drugâtrafficking organizations to terrorist groups and indicated intent to treat them similarly, while some U.S. lawmakers from both major parties expressed concern that executive-ordered military actions lacked congressional authorization and could raise international law issues.
October 24, 2025
high
temporal
Captures contrasting political and legal reactions within the U.S. to executive actions targeting drug-trafficking organizations in 2025.
A failure by Congress to enact appropriations or other funding legislation before the start of a fiscal year can result in a federal government shutdown, disrupting federal operations and funding.
October 23, 2025
high
causal
Cause-and-effect relationship between lapse in appropriations and government shutdowns.
A federal government shutdown, by causing lapses in appropriations, can limit federal agencies' ability to litigate or continue litigation, and courts may grant stays or pauses in proceedings at the government's request until appropriations are restored by Congress.
October 22, 2025
high
procedural
When appropriations lapse, agencies may lack authority to expend funds on litigation-related activities, which can lead to requests for procedural pauses in court cases.
In U.S. federal elections, the political party of the sitting president has historically tended to lose seats in Congress during midterm elections.
October 21, 2025
high
temporal
Longstanding electoral trend in U.S. midterm elections
U.S. law is legally unclear about whether the executive branch can use a funding shutdown to terminate federal employees, and courts have historically often deferred to presidential administrations on related personnel disputes.
October 18, 2025
medium
temporal
This summarizes legal and judicial tendencies regarding administrative authority during funding gaps.
Public demonstrations can arise in response to perceptions of executive overreach or threats to the balance of power when an assertive executive confronts the legislative and judicial branches.
October 18, 2025
high
temporal
Protests as a civic response to perceived shifts in separation-of-powers dynamics.
In past U.S. federal government shutdowns, Congress has passed legislation to ensure continued pay for members of the military.
October 17, 2025
high
procedural
Historical pattern of congressional responses during federal shutdowns.
Closures of national parks and shuttered federal agencies during government shutdowns have historically created public and media pressure that can incentivize legislators to negotiate to reopen the government.
October 17, 2025
high
causal
Public-service disruptions during shutdowns can function as political pressure points.
Funding the federal government normally requires passage of multiple annual appropriations bills, each covering different departments and programs.
October 16, 2025
high
institutional
Congress funds government operations through a set of appropriations bills rather than a single omnibus law by default.
Congressional leaders can advance a full-year, department-level appropriations bill (for example, a full-year defense appropriations bill) as a legislative vehicle and attempt to attach additional funding measures or provisions to that bill.
October 16, 2025
high
legislative
Using a full-year appropriations bill as a vehicle is a common legislative strategy to fund a department and to consolidate or attach other funding items.
Historically, the sitting president's party tends to lose seats in U.S. midterm Congressional elections.
October 16, 2025
high
temporal
Longstanding electoral trend in U.S. midterm elections affecting the president's party.
Federal health insurance subsidies authorized by Congress can expire at the end of a year if Congress does not pass legislation to renew or extend them.
October 10, 2025
high
policy
Congressional authorization is required to maintain certain federal subsidy programs; lapse of authorization can lead to expiration.
Members of the U.S. armed forces are required to continue performing duties during lapses in annual appropriations and may not receive scheduled paychecks until Congress restores funding or specifically authorizes pay during the lapse.
October 10, 2025
high
policy
Pay timing for military personnel depends on the status of federal appropriations or specific legislative action.
Under the U.S. Constitution, each chamber of Congress periodically holds brief pro forma sessions every few days to ensure continuity of operations even when no formal legislative business is conducted, and pro forma sessions can be used for brief speeches or to introduce legislation.
October 10, 2025
high
procedural
Explains the constitutional practice and typical uses of pro forma sessions in Congress.
During a U.S. federal government shutdown, active-duty service members required to work and other federal employees can experience delayed or missed paychecks unless Congress or the President provides funding or emergency pay.
October 10, 2025
high
impact
Summarizes a common consequence of federal government shutdowns for federal payroll.
Federal law requires that reduction-in-force (RIF) procedures include a minimum 60 days' notice of a RIF's end date, or 30 days if a waiver is granted by the Office of Personnel Management; RIF notices are required to include information such as the reasons for the RIF and the effective date, and some agencies may need to notify unions or Congress.
October 10, 2025
high
procedural
Statutory and regulatory process for federal workforce reductions.
U.S. federal criminal law includes offenses for making false statements to Congress and for obstructing a congressional proceeding.
October 08, 2025
high
legal
Describes the types of federal offenses that can be charged in connection with testimony or actions before Congress.
A continuing resolution is a temporary funding measure that Congress can use to fund the federal government short term when regular appropriations bills have not been enacted.
October 08, 2025
high
temporal
Explains the legislative mechanism used to avoid funding gaps.
A proposed approach to prevent federal government shutdowns is to establish a rolling short-term continuing appropriations mechanism that funds agencies at the previous fiscal year's spending levels when Congress fails to enact new appropriations.
October 08, 2025
high
temporal
Describes a legislative design concept intended to avert shutdowns by defaulting to prior-year funding levels on a rolling basis.
A continuing resolution (CR) is a temporary funding measure that Congress can pass to keep federal government operations funded until a specified future date when regular appropriations are enacted.
October 08, 2025
high
definition
Explains the purpose and function of a continuing resolution in federal budgeting.
The Affordable Care Act (ACA) establishes premium tax credits (commonly referred to as ObamaCare subsidies) that affect health insurance premiums and can be extended by Congress on a temporary or permanent basis.
October 08, 2025
high
policy
Explains that ACA premium tax credits are a legislative policy lever subject to congressional extension.
Furloughs of federal employees during U.S. government shutdowns are typically temporary, and once Congress resolves the funding standoff employees generally return to work and receive back pay.
October 07, 2025
high
process
Describes the usual outcome for federal workers furloughed during funding gaps.
Temporary judicial stays of government programs can effectively terminate those programs when appropriated funds expire before the underlying legal disputes are fully resolved.
October 06, 2025
high
temporal
Explains how timing of appropriations and judicial review can make temporary relief have permanent practical effects.
Congress can use short-term federal funding bills, commonly called continuing resolutions, to extend federal funding deadlines and provide more time to complete annual appropriations for a fiscal year.
October 06, 2025
high
temporal
Continuing resolutions are a routine legislative tool to keep government operations funded when regular appropriations are not completed on schedule.
A federal government shutdown occurs when Congress fails to enact funding by the statutory deadline, which leads to suspension of non-essential federal services and furloughs while many essential federal employees and active-duty service members may be required to continue working without pay.
October 06, 2025
high
temporal
General description of how U.S. federal funding lapses affect operations and staffing.
Congress can pass short-term funding measures (continuing resolutions) to temporarily fund the federal government and provide more time for negotiation on policy issues.
October 06, 2025
high
temporal
Common legislative mechanism used to avert or end government funding lapses.
Furloughed federal employees typically return to work and receive back pay once Congress resolves a government shutdown.
October 05, 2025
high
temporal
Typical practice following resolution of past U.S. federal government shutdowns.
A continuing resolution (CR) is a short-term funding measure used to keep the federal government open temporarily while Congress completes the appropriations process.
October 05, 2025
high
procedural
Explains the purpose and use of continuing resolutions in federal budgeting.
The Antideficiency Act prohibits federal agencies from obligating or spending funds that have not been appropriated by Congress.
October 01, 2025
high
temporal
Federal statute that restricts agencies from incurring expenditures in the absence of congressional appropriations.
The U.S. Anti-Deficiency Act prohibits federal agencies from obligating or expending federal funds when those funds have not been appropriated by Congress.
October 01, 2025
high
temporal
Federal appropriations law governing spending during funding lapses.
A full federal government shutdown occurs when the federal fiscal year ends on September 30 and none of Congress's 12 single-subject appropriations bills have been enacted by both the House and Senate.
September 30, 2025
high
temporal
Definition of what constitutes a full U.S. federal government shutdown
Enhanced Affordable Care Act (ACA) premium subsidy provisions that were enacted temporarily are scheduled to expire in 2025 unless Congress takes legislative action to extend them.
January 01, 2025
medium
temporal
Scheduled expiration year for temporary ACA subsidy enhancements.
The U.S. Congress typically funds the federal government through 12 single-subject annual appropriations bills that authorize discretionary spending for agencies and programs.
January 01, 2025
high
temporal
Standard appropriations structure used to fund discretionary federal programs
Federal agencies and programs that rely on discretionary funds appropriated annually by Congress are typically paused, reduced, or otherwise altered during a full government shutdown.
January 01, 2025
high
temporal
Typical operational impact of a full federal government shutdown on discretionary-funded activities
Head Start programs in the United States rely on federal grant funding and require congressional appropriations to renew those grants; if federal appropriations lapse, Head Start programs can be unable to operate until grant renewals are processed and federal staff are recalled to work.
January 01, 2025
high
temporal
Describes the funding dependency and operational vulnerability of Head Start programs to lapses in federal appropriations.
Legislation can be enacted to provide retroactive funding authority so that federally funded programs, such as Head Start, are authorized to continue operating during periods when Congress has not passed new appropriations bills.
January 01, 2025
high
temporal
Describes a legislative mechanism that can be used to maintain continuity of federal programs during funding gaps.
U.S. law requires the White House to notify Congress when it conducts a military attack under provisions of the National Defense Authorization Act.
October 24, 2024
high
legal
Notification requirement in U.S. federal law relating to executive military actions and congressional oversight.
Congress appropriated funds for the Solar for All program in 2022 through the Inflation Reduction Act.
January 01, 2022
high
temporal
Legislative appropriation for a federal program to expand solar access.
The Solar for All program was funded at $7 billion as part of the 2022 appropriation.
January 01, 2022
high
temporal
Program funding level established by congressional appropriation.
Congress authorized a federal energy infrastructure loan program in 2022 that established a $250 billion lending authority for energy infrastructure projects.
January 01, 2022
high
policy
Legislative authorization of a large-scale federal lending program for energy infrastructure.
In 2021, Congress expanded subsidies for Affordable Care Act marketplace plans through the American Rescue Plan Act, increasing financial assistance for people buying individual-market coverage.
March 11, 2021
high
policy
The American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 included temporary increases in premium tax credits for ACA marketplace enrollees.
On 2019-01-25, GEFTA was amended to state that compensation for furloughed workers shall be provided 'subject to the enactment of appropriations Acts', making back pay contingent on subsequent Congressional appropriations rather than an automatic entitlement.
January 25, 2019
high
temporal
Clarifies that the amendment conditions payment to furloughed employees on the enactment of appropriations by Congress.
Prior to the Government Employee Fair Treatment Act of 2019, Congress generally had to enact new legislation to provide retroactive pay to federal employees after a lapse in appropriations (a government shutdown).
January 01, 2019
high
temporal
Describes the prior practice for restoring pay after government shutdowns before the 2019 statutory change.
The Public Service Loan Forgiveness (PSLF) program was created by the U.S. Congress in 2007 to encourage college graduates to work in lower-paying public sector jobs.
January 01, 2007
high
temporal
Origin and purpose of the PSLF program.
Security assurances that are not formal treaties generally lack a detailed legal layout of obligations and do not carry the same legal weight or requirement for legislative (Congressional) approval that treaty-based security guarantees have.
December 05, 1994
high
legal
Distinguishes non-treaty security assurances from treaty-based guarantees in terms of legal detail and domestic legislative backing.
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requires that facilities be made equally open to people with disabilities when readily possible to remedy discriminatory barriers to access.
July 26, 1990
high
legal
Describes the ADA's remedial requirement to make facilities accessible to people with disabilities.
Special Immigrant Juvenile Status (SIJS) was created by an act of Congress in 1990 with bipartisan support.
January 01, 1990
high
temporal
SIJS is a federal immigration classification for certain abused, neglected, or abandoned children and youth.
The U.S. Congress created the Temporary Protected Status (TPS) program in 1990 to prevent deportations of people to countries experiencing natural disasters, civil strife, or other dangerous conditions.
January 01, 1990
high
temporal
Origin and purpose of the TPS immigration program.
In 1980 the U.S. attorney general issued legal opinions concluding it was illegal for federal agencies to continue spending without authorization from Congress, which led to the modern form of U.S. federal government shutdowns.
January 01, 1980
high
temporal
Historical origin of the contemporary federal government shutdown practice
The Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 requires the president to report to Congress any decision to withhold, delay, or rescind appropriated funds (impoundments).
July 12, 1974
high
temporal
Statutory constraints on executive-branch withholding or delaying of funds appropriated by Congress.
The War Powers Resolution of 1973 requires the U.S. president to consult with Congress before introducing U.S. armed forces into hostilities unless there is a declaration of war or other congressional authorization; if Congress does not authorize the use of military force, the president must withdraw forces within 90 days; the law was enacted in 1973 in response to the Vietnam War as a check on presidential war-making powers.
November 07, 1973
high
temporal
Statutory framework governing the executive branch's ability to commit U.S. armed forces to hostilities.
Title IX, enacted by Congress in 1972, prohibits discrimination "on the basis of sex."
1972
high
legal
Title IX is a federal civil-rights law enacted in 1972 addressing sex-based discrimination in education and related federal statutes.
The Title X Family Planning Program was created in 1970 under President Richard Nixon as a federal preventive public health program intended to provide family planning services and enable individuals to time and space pregnancies.
January 01, 1970
high
temporal
Origins and purpose of the federal Title X family planning program.
The federal Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibits redistricting practices that intentionally dilute the voting power of racial or ethnic minority groups (racial gerrymandering).
August 06, 1965
high
legal
The Voting Rights Act provides statutory protection against practices that reduce minority electoral influence through district lines.
The Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibits denying the right to vote on the basis of race and grants Congress the power to enforce that prohibition, and the amendment itself does not include a time limit on Congress's enforcement authority.
February 03, 1870
high
temporal
Constitutional basis for congressional enforcement of voting rights protections against racial discrimination.
The U.S. Mint in Philadelphia has produced 1-cent coins (pennies) since 1793, one year after Congress passed the Coinage Act.
January 01, 1793
high
temporal
Historical origin of penny production at the Philadelphia facility.
The U.S. Constitution vests Congress with the power of the purse, giving Congress primary authority over federal spending and appropriations.
March 04, 1789
high
temporal
Allocation of authority over federal budget and appropriations between branches of government.
The U.S. Constitution grants Congress the sole authority to declare war (Article I, Section 8).
September 17, 1787
high
temporal
Constitutional allocation of war-declaring powers between branches of the U.S. federal government.
Amending the U.S. Constitution requires approval by two-thirds of both chambers of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states.
September 17, 1787
high
temporal
Procedure for constitutional amendment under Article V of the U.S. Constitution.
The U.S. Constitution assigns to Congress the authority to levy tariffs and regulate import duties.
September 17, 1787
high
temporal
Constitutional allocation of tariff-setting power to the legislative branch.
The National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program was established in the late 1980s after lawsuits related to the older DTP vaccine led several manufacturers to leave the market and contributed to vaccine shortages, prompting Congress to enact measures that partially shielded vaccine manufacturers from liability to help ensure continued vaccine production.
high
historical
Explains the legislative and market context that led to creation of the compensation program.
Federal employees classified as essential and required to work during a government shutdown are generally entitled to receive back pay after Congress restores government funding.
high
temporal
General federal practice regarding compensation for essential employees who work during funding lapses.
A continuing resolution (CR) is a temporary appropriations measure that the United States Congress can pass to provide short-term funding for federal agencies and avoid a government shutdown.
high
process
Describes the legislative tool used to temporarily fund the federal government when regular appropriations are not enacted.
A continuing resolution (CR) is a short-term appropriations measure that keeps the federal government open for a set period while congressional negotiators complete longer-term appropriations bills, and CRs often maintain funding roughly at prior fiscal-year levels for that period.
high
temporal
Defines the purpose and typical effect of continuing resolutions in the U.S. appropriations process.
During a federal government shutdown, service members and other federal employees who continue working can experience delayed paychecks if Congress has not enacted funding or passed legislation to provide pay on the regular schedule.
high
temporal
Explains a common personnel and payroll consequence of a lapse in federal appropriations.
The Rural Health Transformation Program is a one-time, five-year federal program totaling $50 billion intended to support transformation of health care delivery in rural communities.
high
temporal
Program created by Congress as part of tax-and-spending legislation to provide funds for rural health transformation.
The Affordable Care Act (commonly called Obamacare) includes premium assistance subsidies that can expire and require congressional action to extend.
high
policy
Describes the nature of ACA premium subsidies and their dependence on legislative action for continuation.
A continuing resolution is a temporary appropriations measure that Congress can pass to fund the federal government for a specified short-term period.
high
procedural
Continuing resolutions are used when regular appropriations lapses would otherwise interrupt government operations.
The Trump administration designated several South and Central American drug cartels and gangs as foreign terrorist organizations, and those designations did not amount to congressional authorization to use military force against them.
medium
policy
Distinction between executive branch terrorist designations and Congress's exclusive power to authorize the use of military force.
Federal courts can vacate or invalidate agency regulations when a court determines that a federal agency exceeded its statutory authority by redefining statutory terms or acting beyond the scope Congress authorized.
high
legal
Judicial review can assess whether agency regulations align with statutes enacted by Congress and may remove regulations found to exceed statutory authority.
The Anti-Deficiency Act, first passed in the 19th century, prohibits federal agencies from obligating or spending more money than Congress has authorized or from using appropriated funds for purposes other than those for which they were allocated.
high
legal
Describes the statutory constraint on federal spending and purpose limitations.
Article I of the U.S. Constitution vests Congress with the power of the purse, meaning Congress has the constitutional authority to appropriate federal funds.
high
constitutional
Explains the constitutional basis for congressional appropriations authority.
Some statutory transfer authorities written into federal law permit agencies to transfer or reallocate funds between accounts when those transfers are explicitly authorized by statute.
high
policy
Legal transfers rely on explicit statutory authorization rather than unilateral executive reallocation.
Federal appropriations generally cannot be shifted across fiscal years without explicit statutory authorization permitting obligations or transfers across years.
high
budgetary
Appropriations availability is typically limited to specified fiscal years unless law provides otherwise.
Agencies and programs funded through annual congressional appropriations are generally paused or operate under severe limitations during a full federal government shutdown.
high
operational
Describes typical operational effects of a funding lapse on federal agencies.
Article I, Section 9, Clause 7 of the U.S. Constitution (the Appropriations Clause) requires that money be deposited into the U.S. Treasury and prevents spending on salaries until Congress enacts a law appropriating those funds.
high
constitutional
Constitutional requirement governing federal appropriations and timing of lawful expenditures for government activities, including servicemember pay.
A funding measure must be passed in identical form by both the House of Representatives and the Senate before it can become law and fund federal government operations.
high
procedural
Explains the bicameral legislative requirement for enacting funding legislation.
If Congress does not enact either appropriations bills or a continuing resolution by a funding deadline, the federal government can enter a shutdown during which nonessential federal operations are suspended.
high
procedural
Explains the consequence of failing to meet funding deadlines.
The Department of Veterans Affairs' medical centers, outpatient clinics, and Vet Centers can remain open and operate normally during a lapse in federal appropriations if those operations are covered by advanced appropriations from Congress.
high
policy
Advanced appropriations are funding set in prior legislation that can allow certain federal programs to continue operating when current-year appropriations lapse.
A defense theory in U.S. criminal cases asserts that a witness's answer that is 'literally true' cannot, by itself, support a conviction for making false statements to Congress or federal investigators.
medium
legal
Describes a legal defense argument concerning the literal-truth doctrine in false-statement prosecutions.
The U.S. Constitution assigns primary responsibility for regulating federal elections to the states and to Congress.
high
legal
Constitutional allocation of authority over federal election regulation.
U.S. congressional defense committees are required to be provided copies of executed military orders within 15 days of issuance as part of congressional oversight procedures.
high
legal
Describes a legal/congressional oversight requirement for sharing military orders with defense committees.
An omnibus appropriations bill consolidates all 12 regular federal appropriations bills into a single legislative package and often includes additional spending provisions and policy riders.
high
procedural
Definition and typical composition of an omnibus funding bill in the federal appropriations process.
The U.S. Constitution grants Congress the power to impose tariffs on imports.
high
temporal
Allocation of tariff-setting authority under the U.S. Constitution.
The major questions doctrine is a legal principle that requires Congress to speak clearly when authorizing actions on matters of vast economic and political significance.
high
temporal
Judicially developed limitation on agency or executive authority in highâstakes policy areas.
Tariffs function as a form of taxation that generate revenue, and the power to tax is a congressional power rather than a presidential power.
high
constitutional
General characterization of tariffs and the allocation of taxing power between Congress and the president.
Legal analysts commonly argue that military strikes undertaken without Congressional authorization can be unlawful under both U.S. law and international law.
medium
legal_opinion
General legal interpretation regarding authorization requirements for the use of force.
Continuing resolutions are commonly used to prevent government shutdowns when Congress has not enacted full-year appropriations legislation.
high
temporal
Describes a routine legislative practice in U.S. budgeting to maintain government funding continuity.
Congress can structure appropriations to fully fund specific agencies or accounts (for example: military construction, Veterans Affairs, the Department of Agriculture, and the legislative branch) so that those agencies and related programs remain operational even if other parts of the government are in a funding lapse.
high
policy
Appropriations can be targeted to exempt certain programs from the effects of a broader government shutdown.
A 'minibus' in U.S. federal budgeting refers to a package that combines multiple spending bills into a single legislative vehicle to fund portions of the government.
high
procedural
Legislative strategy for combining appropriations measures.
Congress can extend expiring tax credits or subsidies, such as the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) premium tax credits, by attaching a time-limited extension to government funding legislation like a continuing resolution (CR).
high
procedural
Mechanism for maintaining or temporarily continuing existing benefit or subsidy programs during appropriations processes.
The U.S. Constitution vests the power to levy taxes in Congress rather than in the president.
high
constitutional
Allocation of taxing power under the U.S. Constitution is relevant to legal challenges that characterize executive duties or measures as taxes.
Under the U.S. constitutional framework, states retain authority to establish the time, place, and manner of elections unless Congress enacts federal laws that expressly preempt state election procedures.
high
legal
Baseline allocation of authority between states and federal government regarding election regulation and the potential for federal preemption.
When regular appropriations are not enacted, Congress can use stopgap funding measures (continuing resolutions) to temporarily fund federal government operations.
high
temporal
General description of stopgap funding as a temporary appropriations mechanism
Congress can temporarily extend prior fiscal-year federal funding levels to provide negotiators additional time to reach longer-term appropriations agreements.
high
procedural
Continuing extensions of prior-year funding levels are a common procedural tool used during budget negotiations.
Legislative leaders can secure cross-party support for funding measures by promising to schedule a future floor vote on a separate policy issue as part of a negotiated agreement.
high
process
Describes a common negotiation tactic used in legislative bargaining to obtain votes.
Premium tax credits and other subsidies enacted under the Affordable Care Act (ACA) can be time-limited and require congressional action to be extended beyond their statutory expiration.
high
policy
Explains the legislative nature of extending health insurance subsidies tied to the ACA.
The U.S. federal government is funded through appropriations bills that Congress must pass to allocate funding to federal departments and agencies.
high
institutional
Appropriations bills are the primary legislative vehicles for funding federal operations.
Congress commonly consolidates multiple appropriations bills into omnibus or 'minibus' packages that combine funding for areas such as defense, labor, transportation, and housing.
high
process
Combining appropriations into larger packages is a recurring legislative strategy to advance funding measures.
The Affordable Care Act (ACA) includes premium subsidy mechanisms intended to improve health insurance affordability, and changes or temporary extensions of those subsidies require congressional or administrative action.
high
policy
Premium subsidies under the ACA affect insurance affordability and can be modified by legislation or administration policy.
The Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program (GHGRP) was created by a congressional appropriation during the Obama administration and funds an EPA rule requiring large energy producers and other high-emission industries to report their greenhouse gas emissions.
high
regulatory
Program origin and purpose within federal environmental regulation.
A U.S. federal government shutdown occurs when Congress fails to enact appropriations or a temporary continuing resolution, causing suspension of non-exempt federal operations.
high
temporal
Defines the triggering condition and immediate administrative consequence of a federal shutdown.
Linking annual appropriations or short-term funding bills to unrelated policy priorities can prolong budget stalemates and contribute to government shutdowns.
high
process
Political parties sometimes attach policy demands to funding measures, which can prevent timely passage of spending bills.
If Congress passes and the measures become law, legislation can require the U.S. Department of Justice to release specified materials.
high
legal
Relationship between enacted legislation and executive-branch compliance.
Federal law prohibits agencies from using any appropriated funding, directly or indirectly, to generate publicity designed to influence Congress in supporting or opposing legislation or appropriations.
high
legal
Restriction on using appropriated funds to affect legislative actions or outcomes.
Congress has the authority to pass legislation that requires federal agencies, including the U.S. Department of Justice, to disclose investigatory files or other records.
high
institutional
Legislation enacted by Congress can include provisions mandating disclosure of agency records or files to other branches or to the public, subject to legal limits and privileges.
The Congressional Review Act provides an expedited process for Congress to overturn certain federal rules and prohibits an agency from issuing another substantially similar rule unless authorized by law.
high
legal
Describes key procedural and substantive constraints of the Congressional Review Act as used to challenge federal rules.